Daniel D. Smeak, DVM, DACVS

Cystotomy is commonly performed in small-animal practice to remove cystic calculi that cannot be treated medically or with other nonsurgical extraction techniques (urohydropropulsion, catheter or basket removal). Unfortunately, if numerous smaller calculi are present in the bladder and urethra, particularly in male dogs, the risk of leaving calculi after cystotomy can be as high as 15% to 20%.